Primary source documents

chapter 1: Christianity in the first and early second century

Flavius Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews XVIII, Chapter 1:2-5 – on the sects of the Jews

Source: Carl E. Purinton, Christianity and Its Judaic Heritage. An Introduction with Selected Sources. New York: The Ronald Press Company 1961, 117-8.

Josephus (c.37-c.100) was the most important Jewish historian. His writings offer important insights into first-century Judaism and contemporary political developments in Palestine. During the Jewish War (66-70) he served as a Jewish military leader. In the first year of the war his group was outnumbered by Roman forces and had to surrender. Josephus, however, won the favor of the Roman general, Vespasian, who later became emperor and made Josephus his imperial historian. His two most important writings are The Jewish War and Antiquities of the Jews. The purpose of his writing was apologetic; he aimed at allowing Greek-speaking people to understand the particular history of the Jews.

The text below describes three Jewish sects – the Pharisees, the Sadducees, and the Essenes. Josephus’ descriptions complement the stories of the New Testament.

        2 The Jews had for a great while had three sects of philosophy peculiar to themselves; the sect of the Essens, and the sect of the Sadducees, and the third sort of opinions was that of those called Pharisees; of which sects, although I have already spoken in the second book of the Jewish War, yet will I a little touch upon them now.

        3 Now, for the Pharisees, they live meanly, and despise delicacies in diet; and they follow the conduct of reason; and what that prescribes to them as good for them they do; and they think they ought earnestly to strive to observe reason's dictates for practice. They also pay a respect to such as are in years; nor are they so bold as to contradict them in anything which they have introduced; and when they determine that all things are done by fate, they do not take away the freedom from men of acting as they think fit; since their notion is, that it hath pleased God to make a temperament, whereby what he wills is done, but so that the will of man can act virtuously or viciously. They also believe that souls have an immortal rigor in them, and that under the earth there will be rewards or punishments, according as they have lived virtuously or viciously in this life; and the latter are to be detained in an everlasting prison, but that the former shall have power to revive and live again; on account of which doctrines they are able greatly to persuade the body of the people; and whatsoever they do about Divine worship, prayers, and sacrifices, they perform them according to their direction; insomuch that the cities give great attestations to them on account of their entire virtuous conduct, both in the actions of their lives and their discourses also.

        4 But the doctrine of the Sadducees is this: That souls die with the bodies; nor do they regard the observation of anything besides what the law enjoins them; for they think it an instance of virtue to dispute with those teachers of philosophy whom they frequent: but this doctrine is received but by a few, yet by those still of the greatest dignity. But they are able to do almost nothing of themselves; for when they become magistrates, as they are unwillingly and by force sometimes obliged to be, they addict themselves to the notions of the Pharisees, because the multitude would not otherwise bear them.

        5 The doctrine of the Essens is this: That all things are best ascribed to God. They teach the immortality of souls, and esteem that the rewards of righteousness are to be earnestly striven for; and when they send what they have dedicated to God into the temple, they do not offer sacrifices, because they have more pure lustrations of their own; on which account they are excluded from the common court of the temple, but offer their sacrifices themselves; yet is their course of life better than that of other men; and they entirely addict themselves to husbandry. It also deserves our admiration, how much they exceed all other men that addict themselves to virtue, and this in righteousness; and indeed to such a degree, that as it hath never appeared among any other men, neither Greeks nor barbarians, no, not for a little time, so hath it endured a long while among them. This is demonstrated by that institution of theirs, which will not suffer any thing to hinder them from having all things in common; so that a rich man enjoys no more of his own wealth than he who hath nothing at all. There are about four thousand men that live in this way, and neither marry wives, nor are desirous to keep servants; as thinking the latter tempts men to be unjust, and the former gives the handle to domestic quarrels; but as they live by themselves, they minister one to another. They also appoint certain stewards to receive the incomes of their revenues, and of the fruits of the ground; such as are good men and priests, who are to get their corn and their food ready for them. They none of them differ from others of the Essens in their way of living, but do the most resemble those Dacae who are called Polistae [dwellers in cities].

Flavius Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews XVIII, 3:3

Source: Carl E. Purinton, Christianity and Its Judaic Heritage. An Introduction with Selected Sources. New York: The Ronald Press Company 1961, 185.

The text below from the Antiquities of Josephus is the earliest reference to Jesus in non-Christian literature. It is assumed that the words describing him as the Christ are Christian interpolations: there is no indication that Josephus had accepted the Christian claim that Jesus was the Messiah the Jews were expecting.

Now, there was about this time Jesus, a wise man, if it be lawful to call him a man, for he was a doer of wonderful works, a teacher of such men as receive the truth with pleasure. He drew over to him both many of the Jews, and many of the Gentiles. He was (the) Christ. And when Pilate, at the suggestion of the principal men amongst us, had condemned him to the cross, those that loved him at the first did not forsake him; for he appeared to them alive again the third day; as the divine prophets had foretold these and ten thousand other wonderful things concerning him. And the tribe of Christians, so named from him, are not extinct at this day.

Clement of Rome, Letter to the Corinthians, Chapters 42-44. 63

Source: Marshall W. Baldwin (ed.), Christianity through the Thirteenth Century. New York, Evanston, and London: Harper & Row, Publishers, 1970, 10-12.

Bishop Clement of Rome belongs to the Apostolic Fathers, that is, the group of earliest Christian writers outside the New Testament. He is regarded as the fourth bishop of Rome (c90-99). His letter to the Corinthians is sometimes called 1 Clement because other letters followed; however, these letters are nowadays regarded as not originally written by him. The letter to the Corinthians is also called Epistle of Clement because it is the only letter we are certain that he wrote. The letter is important because it is possibly the earliest Christian writing outside of the New Testament and contains early elements of authoritative instruction from Rome. It is an example of how the church moved towards structures of obedience – the chapters excerpted below contain references to the authority of bishops as successors of the Apostles.

Chapter 42

1 The apostles received the gospel for us from the Lord Jesus Christ; Jesus Christ was sent from God. 2 Christ, therefore, is from God and the apostles are from Christ. Both, accordingly, came in proper order by the will of God. 3 Receiving their order, therefore, and being filled with confidence because of the Resurrection of the Lord Jesus Christ, and confirmed in the word of God, with full assurance of the Holy Spirit, they went forth preaching the Gospel of the Kingdom of God that was about to come. 4 Preaching, accordingly, throughout the country and the cities, they appointed their first-fruits, after testing them by the Spirit, to be the bishops and deacons of those who should believe. 5 And this they did without innovation, since many years ago things had been written concerning bishops and deacons. Thus, the Scripture says in one place: ‘I will establish their bishops in justice and their deacons in faith’ (cf. Isa. 60:17).

Chapter 43

1 And what wonder is it if they, who had been entrusted in Christ by God with such a work, appointed the persons we have mentioned? After all, the blessed man Moses, ‘a faithful servant in all his house’ (Num. 12:7) recorded in the sacred books all the things commanded him. [… it follows a lengthy reference to Moses drawing rods to decide which tribe would be the priestly tribe.]

Chapter 44

1 Our Apostles also knew, through our Lord Jesus Christ, that there would be contention over the bishop’s office. 2 So, for this cause, having received complete foreknowledge, they appointed the above-mentioned men, and afterwards gave them a permanent character, so that, as they died, other approved men should succeed to their ministry. 3 Those, therefore, who were appointed by the Apostles or afterwards by other eminent men, with the consent of the whole Church and who ministered blamelessly to the flock of Christ in humility, peaceably and nobly, being commended for many years by all – these men we consider are not justly deposed from their ministry. 4 It will be no small sin for us, if we depose from the episcopacy men who have blamelessly and in holiness offered up sacrifice. 5 Blessed are the presbyters who have gone before, since they reached a fruitful and perfect end; for now they need not fear that anyone shall remove to them. 6 For we see that, in spite of their good conduct, you have forced some men from a ministry which they fulfilled without blame.

Chapter 63

1 Confronted by so many and such great examples, therefore, we rightly should bow our necks and adopt an attitude of obedience, so that abandoning this foolish rebellion we may without blame reach the goal set before us. 2 For you will afford us joy and gladness if you obey what we have written through the Holy Spirit and get rid of the wicked passion of jealousy, according to the plea for peace and harmony which we have made in this letter. 3 We have sent trustworthy and prudent men who have lived among us irreproachably from youth to old age; and they will be witness between you and us. 4 We have done this in order that you may know our entire preoccupation has been and remains that you may quickly achieve peace.

Ignatius of Antioch, Letter to the Magnesians 6:1 and Letter to the Trallians 1:1-3:2 – on the authority of the bishop.

Source: Ray C. Petry, A History of Christianity. Readings in the History of the Early and Medieval Church, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc. 1962, 9- 10.

Ignatius of Antioch was the third bishop of Antioch and, like Clement, one of the Apostolic Fathers. Legend tells that Ignatius was among the young children blessed by Jesus (Matt 19:14). Ignatius died as a martyr in Rome around 107. His writings reflect the early church’s increasing emphasis on authoritative structures centered on the bishop. The extracts below, from the Letter to the Magnesians and the Letter to the Trallians, stress the authority of the bishop.

(1)

Ep. Magn. 6:1

I believed, then, that I saw your whole congregation in these people I have mentioned, and I loved you all. Hence I urge you to aim to do everything in godly agreement. Let the bishop preside in God’s place, and the presbyters take the place of the apostolic council, and let the deacons (my special favorites) be entrusted with the ministry of Jesus Christ who was with the Father from eternity and appeared at the end [of the world].

(2)

Ep. Trail, 1:1-3:2.

Well do I realize what a character you have — above reproach and steady under strain. It is not just affected, but it comes naturally to you, as I gathered from Polybius, your bishop. By God’s will and that of Jesus Christ, he came to me in Smyrna, and so heartily congratulated me on being a prisoner for Jesus Christ that in him I saw your whole congregation. I welcomed, then, your godly good will, which reached me by him, and I gave thanks that I found you, as I heard, to be following God.

For when you obey the bishop as if he were Jesus Christ, you are (as I see it) living not in a merely human fashion but in Jesus Christ’s way, who for our sakes suffered death that you might believe in his death and so escape dying yourselves. It is essential, therefore, to act in no way without the bishop, just as you are doing. Rather submit even to the presbytery as to the apostles of Jesus Christ. He is our Hope, and if we live in union with him now, we shall gain eternal life. Those too who are deacons of Jesus Christ’s “mysteries” must give complete satisfaction to everyone. For they do not serve mere food and drink, but minister to God’s Church. They must therefore avoid leaving themselves open to criticism, as they would shun fire.

Correspondingly, everyone must show the deacons respect. They represent Jesus Christ, just as the bishop has the role of the Father, and the presbyters are like God’s council and an apostolic band. You cannot have a church without these. I am sure that you agree with me in this. In your bishop I received the very model of your love, and I have him with me. His very bearing is a great lesson, while his gentleness is most forceful. I imagine even the godless respect him.

Epistle of Barnabas – from the Chapters 4 and 9

Source: Joseph Cullen Ayer, A Source Book for Ancient Church History. From the Apostolic age to the Close of the Conciliar Period, New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons 1941, 15-16.

The Epistle of Barnabas reflects the growing animosity between Christians and Jews. The letter claims that the covenant belongs to the Christians, not to the Jews, because even the practice of circumcision was pointing towards Jesus. The authorship of the Epistle of Barnabas is debated, but its ascription to Barnabas, Paul’s co-worker, has little support. It is usually assumed to have been written sometime between 70 and 130, to Gentile Christians.

Ch. 4. 1 It is necessary, therefore, for us who inquire much concerning present events to seek out those things which are able to save us. Let us wholly flee, then, from all the works of iniquity, lest the works of iniquity take hold of us; and let us hate the error of the present times, that we may set our love on the future. 2 Let us not give indulgence to our soul, that it should have power to run with sinners and the wicked, that we become not like them. 3 The final occasion of stumbling approaches, concerning which it is written as Enoch speaks: For this end the Lord has cut short the times and the days, that His beloved may hasten and will come to his inheritance. [These words do not occur in the book of Enoch.] […] 6 Ye ought therefore to understand. And this also I beg of you, as being one of you and with special love loving you all more than my own soul, to take heed to yourselves, and not be like some, adding largely to your sins, and saying: „The covenant is both theirs and ours.“ 7 For it is ours; but they thus finally lost it, after Moses had already received it. […]

Ch. 9. […] 3 But also circumcision, in which they trusted, has been abrogated. He declared that circumcision was not of the flesh; but they transgressed because an evil angel deluded them. […] 6 Learn, then, my beloved children, concerning all things richly, that Abraham, the first who enjoined circumcision, looking forward in spirit to Jesus, circumcised, the teaching of the three letters having been received. 7 For the Scripture saith: “Abraham circumcised eighteen and three hundred men of his household.” What, then, was the knowledge given to him in this? Learn that he says the eighteen first and then, making a space, the three hundred. The eighteen are the Iota, ten, and the Eta, eight; and you have here the name of Jesus. And because the cross was to express the grace in the letter Tau, he says also, three hundred. He discloses therefore Jesus in the two letters, and the cross in one. He knows this who has put within us the engrafted gift of his teaching. 8 No one has learned from me a more excellent piece of knowledge, but I know that ye are worthy.

Didache Chapters 9-11

Source: The Didache: A Commentary, by Kurt Niederwimmer, translation by Linda M. Maloney; edited by Harold W. Attridge, Minneapolis: Fortress Press 1998, 144-182.

The short Didache is another of the earliest Christian writings that did not become part of the biblical canon. It dates to the late first or early second century and gives insight into the early church’s organization, ethics, and life. Below are three chapters that explain how to pray and how to distinguish reliable apostles from false ones.

Chapter 9: Prayers for the Full Meal

As for thanksgiving, give thanks this way. First, with regard to the cup:
“We thank you, our Father, for the holy vine of David your servant, which You made known to us through Jesus your Servant. To you be glory forever.”
And with regard to the bread:
“We thank you, our Father, for the life and knowledge, which you made known to us through Jesus your Servant. To you be glory forever. As this ‹…› lay scattered upon the mountains and became one when it had been gathered, so may your church be gathered into your kingdom from the ends of the earth. For the glory and the power are yours through Jesus Christ, forever.”
Let no one eat or drink of your thanksgiving [meal] save those who have been baptized into the name of the Lord, since the Lord has said concerning this, “Do not give what is holy to the dogs.”

Chapter 10: Prayer of Thanksgiving

When you have your fill, give thanks this way:

“We thank you, holy Father, for your holy name which you made dwell in our hearts, and for the knowledge and faith and immortality, which you made known to us through Jesus Your Servant. To you be glory forever. You, almighty Lord, created all things for the sake of your name, and you gave food and drink to human beings for enjoyment, so that they would thank you; but you graced us with spiritual food and drink and eternal life through Jesus your servant. *For all things, we thank you, Lord, because you are powerful. To you be glory forever. Be mindful, Lord, of your church, to preserve it from all evil and to perfect it in your love. And ‹…› gather it from the four winds, into the kingdom which you have prepared for it. For power and glory are yours forever. May grace come, and may this world pass by. Hosanna to the God of David! If anyone is holy, let him come; if anyone is not, let him repent. Maranatha! Amen.”
Allow the prophets, however, to give thanks as much as they like.

Chapter 11: Concerning Teachers, Apostles, and Prophets

Accordingly, receive anyone who comes and teaches you all that has been said above. If the teacher himself turns away and teaches another doctrine so that he destroys [the correct teaching], do not listen to him, but [if he teaches] so that justice and knowledge of the Lord increase, receive him as the Lord.
In the matter of apostles and prophets, act this way, according to the ordinance of the gospel. Let every apostle who comes to you be received as the Lord. He shall stay ‹only› one day, or, if need be, another [day] too. If he stays three days, he is a false prophet.
When the apostle leaves, let him receive nothing but [enough] bread [to see him through] until he finds lodging. If he asks for money, he is a false prophet. Do not test any prophet who speaks in the Spirit, and do not judge him, for all sins will be forgiven, but this sin will not be forgiven. Not everyone who speaks in the Spirit is a prophet but only the one whose behavior is the Lord’s. So the false prophet and the prophet will be recognized by their behavior. No prophet who orders a meal in the Spirit eats of it himself; if he does, he is a false prophet. If any prophet teaching the truth does not do what he teaches, he is a false prophet. No prophet, who is reliable and true, who acts for the earthly mystery of the church but does not teach [others] to do what he himself does, shall be judged by you, for his judgment is with God. The ancient prophets acted in the same way. You shall not listen to anyone who says in the Spirit, “Give me money, or something,” but if he is asking that something be given for others who are in need, let no one judge him.

‹…›    textual addition or deletion
[ ]    translation supplement
*    textual emendation

Eusebius, Church History Book II, Chapter 23 – The martyrdom of James

Source: Eusebius. The Church History. Translation and commentary by Paul L. Maier, Grand Rapids, Mich.: Kregel 1999, 70-72.

In his church history, Eusebius collects information from various sources to describe the historical events of the first centuries. His description of the martyrdom of James, also called James the Just, is mainly based on the account of Hegesippus, a Christian historian of the second century, but also on that of Josephus. It is a precious addition to the accounts of the New Testament.

When Paul appealed to Caesar and was sent to Rome by Festus, the Jews were disappointed in their hope regarding the plot they had devised against him and turned against James, the Lord’s brother, to whom the bishop’s throne in Jerusalem had been assigned by the apostles. This is the crime that they committed. They brought him into their midst and in front of the whole populace demanded a denial of his faith in Christ. But when he, contrary to all expectation, loudly and courageously confessed before them all that our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ was the Son of God, they could not tolerate his testimony any longer, since he was universally deemed the most righteous of men because of the heights he had reached in philosophy and religion. So they killed him, using anarchy as their opportunity to seize power, because at that moment Festus had died in Judea, leaving the province without government or procurator. How James died has already been shown by a previous quotation from Clement, who says that he was thrown down from the parapet and clubbed to death. But the most accurate account of him is given by Hegesippus, who came in the generation after the apostles. He writes, in Book 5 of his Memoirs:

[Administration of] the church passed to James, the brother of the Lord, along with the apostles. He was called “the Just” by everyone from the Lord’s time to ours, since there were many Jameses, but this one was consecrated from this mother’s womb.
(…)
So the scribes and Pharisees made James stand on the temple parapet, and they shouted to him, “O righteous one, whom we all ought to believe, since the people are going astray after Jesus who was crucified, tell us, what does ‘the door of Jesus’ mean?” He replied with a loud voice, “Why do you ask me about the Son of Man? He is sitting in heaven at the right hand of the Great Power, and he will come on the clouds of heaven.” Many were convinced and rejoiced at James’s testimony, crying, “Hosanna to the Son of David.” Then the scribes and Pharisees said to each other, “We made a bad mistake in providing such testimony to Jesus, but let us go up and throw him down so that they will be afraid and not believe him.” And they cried out, “Oh, oh, even the just one has gone astray!” This fulfilled the prophecy of Isaiah: “Let us remove the just man, for he is unprofitable to us. Therefore they shall eat the fruit of their works.”

So they went up and threw down the righteous one. Then they said to each other, “Let us stone James the Just,” and they began to stone him, since the fall had not killed him. But he turned and knelt down, saying, “I implore you, O Lord, God and Father, forgive them: they do not know what they are doing.” While they were pelting him with stones, one of the priests among the sons of the Rechabites, to whom the prophet Jeremiah bore witness, cried out, “Stop! What are you doing? The righteous one is praying for you.” Then one of them, a laundryman, took the club that he used to beat out clothes and hit the Just on the head. Such was his martyrdom. They buried him on the spot by the temple, and his gravestone is still there by the temple. He became a true witness to both Jews and Gentiles that Jesus is the Christ.
Just after this Vespasian began to besiege them.

This is the full account given by Hegesippus, which is in agreement with Clement. So extraordinary a man was James, so esteemed by all for righteousness that even the more intelligent of the Jews thought that this was why the siege of Jerusalem immediately followed his martyrdom. Indeed, Josephus did not hesitate to write:

These things happened to the Jews as retribution for James the Just who was a brother of Jesus who was called Christ, for the Jews killed him despite his great righteousness. [Footnote by the editor, Paul L. Maier: This statement is not found in the extant texts of Josephus, but it is cited by Origen (Against Celsus 1.47), which demonstrates that Eusebius did not invent the passage. One must suspect an interpolation in the text of Josephus used by Origen and Eusebius.]  
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